The Space Race
Arising under intense competition and political upheaval, the Space Race between the United States and Soviet Union was a series of competing achievements leading not only to man on the Moon, but to surprising collaboration.
Ignited by war and fueled by ambition, the Space Race was an era of competing achievements between two rivals striving for global superiority. At the end of World War II and the rise of the Cold War, tensions were tight amongst the European allies and the Soviet Union. With war comes rapid innovation in military technologies, aimed at gaining an advantage over the opponent and providing necessary protections.
At this time, the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) emerged as a top priority for the Soviet Union, as its target was situated halfway across the globe. The United States, on the other hand, was able to leverage its alliances in Europe and establish nearby bases to the Soviet Union, alleviating the immediate need for the development of these long-range weapons.
In 1953, Soviet Union rocket designer Sergei Korolev developed the R-7 Rocket, the first rocket capable of carrying nuclear weapons between continents. This development prompted the U.S. to recognize the Soviet Union’s capacity for such advancements, accentuating fears that its military technology lagged behind.
Taking advantage of international scientific talent in the face of emerging Cold War tensions, the U.S. government enlisted the expertise of Nazi German rocket scientists in 1945 who had been key in developing ballistic missiles during World War II.
German Jumo 004 Engine at the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory
(1946) Research is being done on the German Jumo 004 engine at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronatics (NACA) to test its maximum performance. This engine powered the world’s first operational jet fighter and was the only jet aircraft used in combat during WWII. Conveniently the engine’s designer Anselm Franz had recently arrived at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in nearby Dayton, Ohio as part of Project Paperclip.
Image credit: NASA
This secret U.S. intelligence program, known as ‘Operation Paperclip’, brought over 1,600 German scientists, engineers, and technicians to the U.S. for employment with the aim to seize Nazi technologies, - particularly aircrafts, rockets, and missiles - that the U.S. deemed superior to others.
Despite the inconvenient Nazi records of many scientists and engineers involved, escalating tensions with the Soviet Union made their permanent immigration more acceptable, as their expertise was seen as crucial for bolstering the U.S. weapon program. For 15 years after World War II, German-American aerospace engineer Von Braun led a team working with the U.S. Army in the development of guided missiles.
Not only was the United States threatened by USSR’s quicker advancement of technologies, but was also threatened by the potential of attack. Journalists and intelligence analysts began asserting that the Soviet missile force could outnumber the American arsenal of ICBMs by as much as 16 to one by 1960. This perception of the “missiles gap”, coined in 1957, led to increased investments and development by the U.S. in order to catch up with Soviet’s rapid advancements.
While the U.S. was working on ICBMs, the Soviet Union utilized the R-7 Rocket in another way: to use the powerful propulsion capabilities to launch satellites into orbit.
Building upon Konstantin Tsiolkovsky’s rocket equation, Korolev redesigned the R-7 rocket to accommodate a heavier payload and explored the potential of using the vehicle to launch a satellite.
The R-7 Rocket’s newfound dual role in space exploration and military defense led the competition from war to space. The significance of this shift became starkly evident with the launch of Sputnik in October 1957 by the Soviet Union, a milestone moment that signaled the beginning of the Space Race.
The Soviet Union possessed the crucial equation needed to launch large satellites into orbit, while the U.S. faced a constant struggle to keep pace, battling to lift satellites even half the size.
Continuing to leverage the knowledge and experience of these German engineers, the United States followed suit and also repurposed ICBMs for space exploration, culminating in the launch of the ‘Explorer I’ satellite on January 31, 1958.
This achievement, made possible by the collaborative efforts of American scientists and German rocket experts, proved the U.S. was able to compete with the Soviet Union in the race to space.
As the timeline of competing space achievements unfurled, it became evident that the Space Race was not just about reaching the stars but about establishing supremacy on Earth in a world post World War II.
On July 15th, 1975, a historic moment began to unfold as an Apollo spacecraft carrying a crew of three launched as part of the first cooperative international space flight. This mission, the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, was carried out jointly by the United States and the Soviet Union and aimed to test the compatibility of rendezvous and docking system.
Two days later, on July 17th, the Apollo spacecraft docked with a Soyuz spacecraft in Earth orbit in a remarkable display of collaboration. Commanders, U.S. astronaut Tom Stafford and Russian Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, met and exchanged the first international handshake. This gesture not only bridged the gap between two superpowers but also symbolically brought an end to the intense competition of the Space Race.
The success of the Apollo-Soyuz mission demonstrated that despite political differences, nations could come together to achieve common goals in space. The mission laid the foundation for future joint endeavors in space exploration, paving the way for collaborative efforts that followed, such as the Shuttle-Mir program (1994-1998) and the International Space Station (ISS), beginning in 1998.
This historical handshake between Stafford and Leonov signified a commitment to mutual understanding and peaceful cooperation in space exploration. It continually reminds us of a future where nations could work together for the betterment of humanity.
Astronaut Stafford and Cosmonaut Leonov together in Soyuz Orbital Module
(1975) Astronaut Donald K. Slayton (left) and cosmonaut Aleksey A. Leonov (right) are seen together in the Soyuz Orbital Module during the joint U.S.-USSR Apollo-Soyuz Test Project docking mission in Earth orbit. Slayton is the docking module pilot of the American crew. Leonov is the Soviet crew commander. Image credit: NASA
Although, most historians agree that the Space Race ended 6 years earlier when Neil Armstrong made the first steps on the Moon. While the race to the Moon may have formally concluded, both nations continued their space endeavors.
The Soviets shifted priority towards longer-term goals, like establishing a permanent presence in space with Earth-orbiting space stations and exploring other planets with robotics and probes.
The United States continued the Apollo program, allowing 12 men to become ‘Moonwalkers’. The Apollo program ended with Apollo 17 in December 1972 due to governmental budget cuts.
As space exploration continued pushing forward, so did the rest of the world. The Cold War persisted, witnessing significant geopolitical shifts such as the Fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, leading to the reunification of Germany. On Christmas day 1991, the dissolution of the Soviet Union brought an official end to the Cold War era.
Advancements and missions to space persisted, but in a different form. Over the three decades following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States and Russia have engaged in cooperative agreements, notably contributing to the assembly and occupation of the International Space Station since the dawn of the 21st century.
Although maintaining their own independent security and industrial interests in space, the two countries, along with others, have realized the significance in collaboration.